Cursing in the Celtic Tradition

 

  Although sometimes seen as a controversial topic, there is ample evidence of cursing in Irish folklore and mythology. Cursing might be used as a form of justice, such as we see in the use of satire, or as a punishment and often could only be removed by meeting specific conditions. One method of "testing" for a curse was to bring a hedgehog near the person and see how it reacted; if it's spikes stood up then it was a sure sign of bewitchment (Wilde, 1991).
  In mythology we see the use of cursing to force a person to change shape and live as an animal. In the story of Fionn for example we see his wife Sabhdh turned into a deer when she is cursed by a spurned suitor; he uses a wand to change her shape. We also see a curse of transformation in the story of the children of Lir, where the children are turned into swans, and in the story of Etain, where Etain is cursed into the form of a butterfly (or moth). Often in these cases the curses can only be lifted under a set of very particular circumstances.
   A common type of cursing appearing in literature, and one for which there were later Brehon laws, was satire. Satire is a type of spoken curse that could be laid against a person by a Bard or File in order to effect their life. The most well known example might be the satire against Bres which cost him the kingship of the Tuatha De Danann. Satire could be used against those who had done something - such as Bres - to deserve being punished,  but could also be used unfairly against a person and it is that sort that there were later laws against. It was believed that if a poet unfairly spoke a satire that he or she would have a disfiguring blemish - a literal mark of shame - appear on his or her face.
   There is archaeological evidence of the use of curse tablets in the Celtic world. Often found at shrine sites the tablets of lead and pewter are engraved with curses describing exactly who and why and usually invoking a specific power (Green, 1997). The existing examples often seek to use the curse to exact justice in a situation, such as retribution for a theft. These curse tablets have been found at the sites of healing shrines, temples, and in springs, and appear written in Latin and Gaulish (Green, 1997).
    Some folk curses include the use of sympathetic magic; one such folk method of cursing involves the use of a effigy made of wax, clay, or a similar material, into which thorns or pins can be driven (McNeill, 1956; Estyn Evans, 1957). After being made to look like the intended victim the figure would first be pierced with the sharp objects, then would either be placed in a stream where the running water could wear it away or burned in a fire (McNeill, 1956). This type of curse is intended to create a wasting illness or general ill health in the victim (Estyn Evans, 1957).

   Additionally there are a few other kinds of miscellaneous cursing. In one example Lady Wilde writes of the practice of ritually burying an ear of corn with the intent that as the corn decays the person being cursed will suffer (Wilde, 1991). McNeill mentions the use of a witch-bone, a hollow deer bone with a bog oak ring around it through which blood is poured to ill-wish a person (McNeill, 1956). It was generally believed that to walk counterclockwise around a person or property could create a curse, particularly when combined with intent or a spoken curse. Finally there is the practice of using stones to curse others. One method is to hold a cursing stone in your left hand and turn it around three times counter clockwise against a person (O hOgain, 1999). Another is to use a spoken curse against someone while building a stone cairn against them, which Carmichael calls a cairn of malediction (Carmichael, 1900).
   In Celtic culture there are many methods of cursing, and an equal number of protections and counter-curses. Cursing itself was seen as a serious action and a breach of social order, but could also offer power to the powerless. There was a deeply rooted belief that to set a curse without a good cause would bring negative repercussions on the curse caster which can be seen in the beliefs around satire. In a modern setting using any of these curses should only be done with great caution and after great thought is given to the need and risk. 

References:
McNeill, F., (1956). The Silver Bough, volume 1
O hOgain, D., (1999) The Sacred Isle
Wilde (1991). Irish Charms and Superstitions
Estyn Evans, E. (1957) Irish Folk Ways
Carmichael, A., (1900). Carmina Gadelica
Green, M., (1997) World of the Druids